Ethics Guidelines
Part A - Guidelines for Projects Involving Work on Free-living Vertebrates
Section 5 - Specific Procedures
5.1 Observation
The apparent tameness of wildlife is a superficial impression and studies have shown that birds and seals may be under stress even when they show no obvious reactions. The use of an aircraft or a vehicle in such a manner as to disturb concentrations (defined as more than 20) of birds and seals is regulated. This is particularly important when colonies are observed or studied from the ground or the air and, to help researchers meet their legal requirements, reference should be made to the following documents on the AAD website at http://www.aad.gov.au
- Environmental Guidelines for Antarctic and sub-Antarctic Helicopter Operations;
- ANARE Operations Manual; and
- Guidelines for Antarctic Research Applications
The following limits are in place for helicopters operating around concentrations of birds or seals:
S76 (Sikorsky long range) -1500 metres minimum landing distance and overflight altitude
AS350 (Squirrel) -750 metres minimum landing distance for landing and overflight altitude
The only conditions under which these guidelines should be broken are where human safety would otherwise be at risk, or where you have an Australian Antarctic Division permit allowing you to fly lower or land closer. The pilots can and will deny your requests for helicopter operations if they feel safety would be jeopardised or wildlife disturbed (without the appropriate permits approval).
When using helicopters around wildlife make sure the pilots are aware of the conditions of your permit. Before you take off it is your responsibility to discuss with them the overflight altitudes, landing distances and flight paths you wish to use and, if possible, let them know in advance where concentrations of wildlife are likely to be.
The impact of helicopter overflights and landings on birds and mammals can be affected by such things as the breeding/nesting phase of the species, wind speed and direction, background noise in the colony, and potential habituation of the species to any regular helicopter operations.
5.2 Identification by Artificial Means
Seals are frequently marked with flexible plastic tags. Metal flipper bands used to individually identify penguins should only be used where identification of birds is necessary between seasons for long-term studies. If individual birds need to be recognised within seasons, temporary colour marking procedures should be used. Tags should have a circular cross-section shaft and be capable of swivelling around the shaft. For phocids these should be applied to the rear flippers as they can normally be fitted without the need for physical restraint of the seal. Fur seals and other otariids can move their hind limbs underneath their bodies to support their weight, so for this reason tags must not be fitted to the hind limbs. Tags should be inserted in the trailing edge of the fore limbs, a procedure which requires physical restraint. To overcome the tag being torn out in the net, the net should be rolled up over the animal's body whilst it is still physically restrained, freeing the fore flippers so that the net only covers the animal's head and neck. The net can then be rapidly pulled away with minimal chance of tags catching. Double tagging of all seals is recommended to overcome the problems induced by tag loss. Physical restraint may be required for tag checking.
Artificial identity markers should be almost painless to fit, they should have no effect upon behaviour and physiology, they should not affect intraspecific relations, and must have no significant effect on survival. Colour marking is a useful technique, but researchers should be alert to any increased attack by birds. Velcro flipper tags may be used with penguins, but they should be removed, wherever possible, at the end of the investigation. Great care should be taken when fitting bands to ensure that growth can occur without the band becoming too tight. Every attempt should be made to recover bands before dispersal makes it impossible to locate marked birds. Metal web tags may be used for marking penguin chicks. Before attaching, the tag and pliers should be dipped in an antiseptic solution.
Inert transponders inserted under the skin via a needle are now available for use with seals and penguins. Physical restraint is necessary for their insertion and may be necessary for checking. Research was conducted over the 1996-97 season to determine the optimum insertion site for Adélie penguins and whether the tags are likely to move around the body. That research has led to the following recommendations for the tagging of birds with transponders.
Tagging implantation sites should provide:
- sufficient loose skin for the tag to be injected into;
- a location such where migration would not lead to the tag easily entering a body cavity;
- a position where the tag would not affect the movement of the limbs; and
- a location from which the tag would not get damaged or lost.
The preferred tagging site in Adélie penguins is midway down the back as there are no structures to be damaged during injection, damage to the tag is unlikely, and migration of the tag would need to be extensive for the tag to enter a body cavity or impinge on the function of other organs. Note that implantation over the sternum may risk damage to the transponder when birds toboggan on their bellies.
In all studies only the minimum number of individuals should be marked, consistent with the objectives of the study.
5.3 Radiotelemetry
Radiotelemetry is fast becoming an important method of collecting information from Antarctic species. The term embraces both devices which transmit their data directly to a satellite, shore station or ship, and devices which store data for subsequent electronic removal. Devices should in no way interfere with the normal activity of the species, and should be attached with the least invasive method practicable. Fast setting glues are essential. Devices should be dark coloured and any colour marking of tagged individuals should be carried out in accordance with Section 5.2. Radio transmitter tags should be fitted in an identical manner to identification tags (see Section 5.2)
5.4 Surgery
Only very minor surgical procedures of short duration should be conducted in the field, under the conditions discussed in Section 4. Such procedures would be limited to drawing a blood sample or taking a skin biopsy. Any major surgery should be conducted under normal veterinary guidelines, with facilities that provide asepsis, controlled temperature, gaseous anaesthetic machines, monitors of cardiovascular, respiratory and thermoregulatory parameters and recovery areas.
5.5 Collection of Body Tissues and Samples
Techniques for use in sampling tissues, etc. from live animals require humane procedures and considered planning to ensure that the maximum scientific data are achieved with a minimum of samples. Only trained personnel should take tissue samples from live animals. Advice must be obtained from a veterinarian or others with demonstrable skill as to the techniques and drugs appropriate to a particular procedure. Procedures which have the potential to cause considerable distress or which are essentially dangerous to the animal should be undertaken by a veterinarian. Tranquillisers and immobilising agents with poor analgesic properties are not an acceptable substitute for general anaesthesia when procedures that cause more than slight or momentary pain are used. Although aseptic techniques are difficult to achieve in the field, cleanliness in all surgical and sampling techniques is essential to minimise the potential for infections and to provide reliable biological samples.
For repeated blood sampling from phocid seals a catheter should be inserted into the epidural vein (otariid seals do not have an epidural vein that is readily accessed); veins in the limbs are less easy to use on account of limb mobility and would necessitate immobilising the animal.
5.6 Removal of Stomach Contents from Seals and Birds
While the loss of a stomach-full of food may be relatively unimportant to large pinnipeds which suckle their young on milk, it may be of great significance to penguins and other birds which feed their young by regurgitation.
Only those birds in good condition that are recently arrived from the sea should be selected for this procedure. All animals treated in this way should be colour marked to avoid their being flushed a second time. If there is any doubt about a bird's wellbeing during flushing operations, researchers should stop and choose another.
It is best to capture birds arriving at the beach if only food items are needed.
Each nest from which an adult is captured for stomach flushing should be clearly marked to ensure that the nest will not be used again that season (tags should be removed at the end of the season). This will ensure that no bird is sampled more than once and that no chick loses more than a single meal.
Tubing used should be made of a substance that will not become rigid in cold temperatures, and therefore medical grade silicone tubing is recommended. The end of the tube that is to be pushed down the throat should have smooth edges to avoid damaging the oesophageal membrane. The length of tubing to be inserted should be marked to length before insertion..
Fresh water should be used in the flushing technique and should be heated until it feels warm to the hand as cold water will kill the bird being operated upon.
If a bird dies during, or as a result of, stomach flushing operations, a post mortem must be conducted to determine the cause of death and a report forwarded to the Antarctic Animal Ethics Committee (AAEC) as soon as it is practical after the event.
5.7 Euthanasia
Animals injured as a result of human activity should be subjected to euthanasia, except when, in the view of the responsible person, there is a good chance of full recovery. The fate of animals injured as a result of natural phenomena must be left to the discretion of the responsible person.
If a seal pup is abandoned as a result of human interference then a decision should be taken to kill the animal if there is no chance of it surviving on its own. Should such an abandonment occur, the researcher must submit a report to the AAEC without delay.
Field methods of euthanasia must be as quick and as painless as possible and be compatible with the design of the investigation and the size and behaviour of the species under investigation. The choice of method, therefore, will vary with the species and the circumstance. Investigators in the field must always be equipped to handle euthanasia. While the method of euthanasia should be selected so as not to interfere with the objectives of the research, the welfare of the animal must take priority (See Section 2).
5.8 Environmental Ethics
For details of environmental management in Antarctica refer to Chapter 2 - Environment in the ANARE Operations Manual and the relevant Station Management Plan. Please direct enquiries to the Environment Officer, Environmental Management and Audit Unit, Australian Antarctic Division telephone 03 6232 3507 email emau@aad.gov.au.
The objectives of the environmental guidelines apply to all scientific investigation sites. The attention of workers using radioisotopes is drawn to the section of the Code for Use of Ionising Radiation which calls for a record of contaminated areas to be kept and lodged in the Australian Antarctic Division. Carcasses of isotope-treated animals must, wherever possible, be returned to Australia and disposed of in accordance with Section 10 of Part B of this document; other carcasses should be disposed of in the manner most appropriate to the objectives of the management document.
All scientific projects are subject to an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) in accordance with the Antarctic Treaty (Environment Protection) Act 1980. All Australian Antarctic activities must also comply with the new Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC) Act which applies to all activities concerning Commonwealth lands and waters, including the AAT, subantarctic islands and the Southern Ocean. As well as the EIA, permits are required for some activities.
(ASP & C)
May 2002
Next Chapter
Return to Table of Contents